blogger.com is a platform for academics to share research papers Sep 29, · As America's most fearless purveyor of "truthiness," Stephen Colbert shines a light on ego-driven punditry, moral hypocrisy and government incompetence, raising the bar for political satire Howard Zinn (* August in Brooklyn, New York City; † Januar in Santa Monica, Kalifornien) war ein einflussreicher US-amerikanischer Historiker, Politikwissenschaftler und Professor an der Boston University.. Den Schwerpunkt seiner Geschichtsforschung bildeten die Bürgerrechts- und Friedensbewegungen. Als Praktiker der Geschichte von unten bot Zinn eine Revision der
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Over the past half-century, scholars in the interdisciplinary field of Judgment and Decision Making have amassed a trove of findings, daniel ellsberg dissertation, and prescriptions regarding the processes daniel ellsberg dissertation people enact when making choices. But this body of knowledge has had little influence on sociology. Our aim in this article is to provide an overview of selected ideas, daniel ellsberg dissertation, models, and data sources from decision research that can fuel new lines of inquiry on how socially situated actors navigate both everyday and major life choices.
We also highlight opportunities and challenges for cross-fertilization between sociology and decision research that can allow the methods, findings, and contexts of each field to expand their joint range of inquiry. Over the past several decades, there has been an explosion of interest in, and recognition of the importance of, how people make decisions, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
Researchers in the interdisciplinary field of Judgment and Decision Making JDM —which primarily comprises cognitive science, behavioral economics, academic marketing, and organizational behavior—have generated a wealth of findings, insights, and prescriptions regarding how people make choices. In addition, with the advent of rich observational data from purchase histories, a related line of work has revolutionized statistical models of decision making that aim to represent underlying choice process.
But for the most part these daniel ellsberg dissertation and ideas have not penetrated sociology. First, JDM research has largely daniel ellsberg dissertation focused on contrasting how a daniel ellsberg dissertation informed, computationally unlimited i. Since sociology never fully embraced the rational choice model of behavior, debunking it is less of a disciplinary priority, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
But most daniel ellsberg dissertation problems—such as choosing a romantic partner, neighborhood, or daniel ellsberg dissertation characterized by obscurity : there is no single, obvious, optimal, or correct answer.
Perhaps most critically, the JDM literature has by and large minimized the role of social context in decision processes. This is deliberate. Finally, there is the challenge of data availability: sociologists typically do not observe the intermediate stages daniel ellsberg dissertation which people arrive at decision outcomes. For example, researchers can fairly easily determine what college a person attended, daniel ellsberg dissertation, what job they chose, or whom they married, but they rarely observe how they got to that decision—that is, how people learned about and evaluated available options, daniel ellsberg dissertation, and which options were excluded either because they were infeasible or unacceptable.
But such process data can be collected in a number of different ways, daniel ellsberg dissertation, as detailed later in daniel ellsberg dissertation article. Moreover, opportunities to study sociologically relevant decision processes are rapidly expanding, owing to the advent of disintermediated sources like the Internet and smart phones, which allow researchers to daniel ellsberg dissertation human behavior at a much finer level of temporal and geographic granularity than ever before.
Equally important, these data often contain information on which options people considereddaniel ellsberg dissertation, but ultimately decided against. Such activity data provide a rich source of information on sociologically relevant decision processes Bruch et al. We believe that the time is ripe for a new line of work that draws on insights from cognitive science and decision theory to examine choice processes and how they play out in social environments.
As we discuss in the next section, daniel ellsberg dissertation, sociology and decision research offer complementary perspectives on decision-making and there is much to be gained from combining them. By leveraging insights on how contextual factors and aspects of choice problems influence decision strategies, sociologists can better pinpoint how, why, daniel ellsberg dissertation, and when features of the social environment trigger and shape human behavior.
This also presents a unique opportunity for cross-fertilization. The literature on judgment and decision-making is enormous; our goal here is to offer a curated introduction aimed at social scientists new to this area. In addition to citing recent studies, we deliberately reference the classic and integrative literature in this field so that researchers can acquaint themselves with the works that introduced these ideas, and gain a comfortable overview to it.
We highlight empirical studies of decision making that help address how people make critical life decisions, such as choosing a neighborhood, college, life partner, or occupation.
Thus, our focus is daniel ellsberg dissertation research that is relevant for understanding decision processes characterized by obscurity, where there is no obvious correct or optimal answer.
The balance of the article is as follows. We first explain how decision research emerged as a critique of rational choice theory, and show how these models of behavior complement existing work on action and decision-making in sociology.
The core of the paper provides an overview of how cognitive, emotional, and contextual factors shape decision processes. We then introduce the data and methods commonly used to study choice processes, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
Decision research relies on a variety of data sources, including results from lab and field experiments, surveys, daniel ellsberg dissertation, brain scans, and observations of in-store shopping and other behavior. We discuss their relative merits, and provide a brief introduction to statistical modeling approaches. We close with some thoughts about opportunities and challenges for sociologists wanting to incorporate insights and methods from the decision literature into their research programs, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
To understand how sociology and psychology offer distinct but complementary views of decision processes, we begin with a brief introduction to the dominant model of human decision-making in the social daniel ellsberg dissertation rational choice theory.
Actors are assumed to have a complete inventory of possible alternatives of action; there is no allowance for focus of attention or a search for new alternatives Simonp. Indeed, a distinguishing feature of the classic model is its lack of attention to the process of decision-making. Preference maximization is a synonym for choice McFaddenp. Rational choice has a long tradition in sociology, but its popularity increased in the s and s, partly as a response to concern within sociology about the growing gap between social theory and quantitative empirical research Coleman Quantitative data analysis, despite focusing primarily on individual-level outcomes, is typically conducted without any reference to—let alone a model of—individual action Goldthorpe ; Esser Importantly, daniel ellsberg dissertation choice behavior of rational actors can also be straightforwardly implemented in regression-based models readily available in statistical software packages.
Indeed while some scholars explicitly embrace rational choice as a model of behavior Hechter and Kanazawa ; Kroneberg and Kaltermany others implicitly adopt it in their quantitative models of individual behavior.
Sociologists have critiqued and extended the classical rational choice model in a number of ways. They have observed that people are not always selfish actors who behave in their own best interests England ; Margolisthat preferences are not fixed characteristics of individuals Lindenberg and Frey ; Munchand that individuals do not always behave in ways that are purposive or optimal Somers ; Vaughan Most relevant to this article, sociologists have argued that the focus in classical rational choice on the individual as the primary unit of decision-making represents a fundamentally asocial representation of behavior.
In moving beyond rational choice, theories of decision-making in sociology highlight the importance of social interactions and relationships in shaping behavior Pescosolido ; Emirbayer But This focus on social environments and social interactions has inevitably led to less attention being paid to the individual-level processes that underlie decision-making.
In contrast, psychologists and decision theorists aiming to daniel ellsberg dissertation beyond rational choice have focused their attention squarely on how individuals make decisions. In doing so, they have amassed several decades of work showing that the rational choice model is a poor representation of this process, daniel ellsberg dissertation. Decision-makers have limited daniel ellsberg dissertation for learning about choice alternatives, limited working memory, and limited computational capabilities Miller ; Payne et al.
However, in their efforts to zero in on the strategies people use to gather and process information, psychological studies of decision-making have focused largely on individuals in isolation. Daniel ellsberg dissertation, sociological and psychological perspectives on choice are complementary in that they each emphasize a feature of decision-making that the other field has left largely undeveloped.
For this reason, and as we articulate further in the conclusion, we believe there is great potential for cross-fertilization between these areas of research.
Because our central aim is to introduce sociologists to the JDM literature, we do not provide an exhaustive discussion of sociological work relevant to understanding decision processes, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
Rather, we highlight studies that illustrate the fruitful connections between sociological concerns and JDM research.
In the next sections, we discuss the role of different factors—cognitive, emotional, and contextual—in heuristic decision processes. There are two major challenges in processing decision-related information: first, daniel ellsberg dissertation, each choice is typically characterized by multiple attributes, and no alternative is optimal on all dimensions; and, second, more than a tiny handful of information can overwhelm the cognitive capacity of decision makers Cowan Consider the problem of choosing among three competing job offers.
Job 1 has high salary, but a moderate commuting time and a family-unfriendly workplace. Job 2 offers a low salary, daniel ellsberg dissertation, but has a family-friendly workplace and short commuting time. Job 3 has a family-friendly workplace but a moderate salary and long commuting time.
This choice would be easy if one alternative clearly dominated on all attributes. But, as is often the case, they all involve making tradeoffs and require the decision maker to weigh the relative importance of each attribute.
Now imagine that, instead of three choices, there were ten, a hundred, or even a thousand potential alternatives. This illustrates the cognitive challenge faced by people trying to daniel ellsberg dissertation among neighborhoods, potential romantic partners, job opportunities, or health care plans. We focus in this section on choices that involve deliberation, for example deciding where to live, what major to pursue in college, or what jobs to apply for.
For a given individual, the set of potential options can first be divided into the set that he or she knows about, and those of which he or she is unaware. This smaller set is referred to as the consideration setand the final decision is restricted to options within that set.
Research in consumer behavior suggests that the decision to include certain alternatives in the consideration set can be based on markedly different heuristics and criteria than the final choice decision e. In many cases, daniel ellsberg dissertation, people use simple rules to restrict the energy involved in searching for options, or to eliminate options from future consideration. For example, a high school student applying to college may only consider schools within commuting distance of home, or schools where someone she knows has attended.
Once the decision maker has narrowed down his or her options, the final choice decision may allow different dimensions of alternatives to be compensatory; in other words, a less attractive value on one attribute may be offset by a more attractive value on another attribute.
The implicit decision rule used in statistical models of individual choice and the normative decision rule for rational choice is the weighted additive rule. Under this choice regime, decision-makers compute a weighted sum of all relevant attributes of potential alternatives. Choosers develop an overall assessment of each choice alternative daniel ellsberg dissertation multiplying the attribute weight by the attribute level for each salient attributeand then sum over all attributes.
This produces a single utility value for each alternative. The alternative with the highest value is selected, by assumption. Any conflict in values is assumed to be confronted and resolved by explicitly considering the extent to which one is willing to trade off attribute values, as reflected by the relative importance or beta coefficients Payne et al, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
Using this rule involves substantial computational effort and processing of information. This strategy ignores information about the relative importance of each attribute.
To implement this heuristic, a decision maker decides which attribute values are desirable or undesirable. Then she counts up the number desirable versus undesirable attributes, daniel ellsberg dissertation. Strictly speaking, this rule forces people to make trade-offs among different attributes. However, it is less cognitively demanding than the weighted additive rule, as it does not require people to specify precise weights associated with each attribute.
But both rules require people to examine all information for each alternative, determine the sums associated with each alternative, and compare those sums. Thus they are far less cognitively taxing than compensatory rules. The decision maker need only examine the attributes that define cutoffs in order to make a decision to exclude options for a conjunctive rule, or to include them for a disjunctive one, daniel ellsberg dissertation.
The fewer attributes that are used to evaluate a choice alternative, the less taxing the rule will be. Conjunctive rules require that an alternative must be acceptable on one or more salient attributes. For example, in the context of residential choice, a house that is unaffordable will never be chosen, no matter how attractive it is. Similarly, a man looking for romantic partners on an online dating website may only search for women who are within a mile radius and do not have children.
Potential partners who are unacceptable on either dimension are eliminated from consideration. A disjunctive rule dictates that an alternative is considered if at least one of its attributes is acceptable to chooser i. For example, a sociology department hiring committee may always interview candidates with four or more American Journal of Sociology publications, regardless of their teaching record or quality of recommendations. While sociologists studying various forms of deliberative choice do not typically identify the decision rules used, a handful of empirical studies demonstrate that people do not consider all salient attributes of all potential choice alternatives.
Finally, daniel ellsberg dissertation, in a recent study of online mate choice, Bruch and colleagues build on insights from marketing and decision research to develop a statistical model that allows for multistage decision processes with different potentially noncompensatory decision rules at each stage.
They find that conjunctive screeners are common at the initial stage of online mate pursuit, and precise cutoffs differ by gender and other factors.
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Sep 26, · This is also the view of Ellsberg, who offers, in Ch. 1 of his doctoral dissertation, reprinted as Ellsberg , a worthwhile discussion of the issues of present interest, with Zappia providing a recent philosophically-oriented discussion.) blogger.com is a platform for academics to share research papers Howard Zinn (* August in Brooklyn, New York City; † Januar in Santa Monica, Kalifornien) war ein einflussreicher US-amerikanischer Historiker, Politikwissenschaftler und Professor an der Boston University.. Den Schwerpunkt seiner Geschichtsforschung bildeten die Bürgerrechts- und Friedensbewegungen. Als Praktiker der Geschichte von unten bot Zinn eine Revision der
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