ERIC is an online library of education research and information, sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education L-carnitine supplementation improves body strength, sports endurance and exercise capacity, as well as delaying the onset of fatigue. The aim of this study was to identify the correct dosage of supplementation to obtain improvements in physical performance and evaluate the changes related to L-carnitine supplementation in specific metabolic parameters, such as serum lactate, VO2, serum total The objective of this paper is to conduct a literature review and analysis on theories and empirical evidence on the relationship between employee motivation and organizational productivity with a
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More, literature review on performance related pay. Breakfast consumption is associated with positive outcomes for diet quality, micronutrient intake, weight status and lifestyle factors.
Breakfast has been suggested to positively affect learning in children in terms of behavior, cognitive, and school performance. However, these assertions are largely based on evidence which demonstrates acute effects of breakfast on cognitive performance.
Less research which examines the effects of breakfast on the ecologically valid outcomes of academic performance or in-class behavior is available. The literature was searched for articles published between — indexed in Ovid MEDLINE, Pubmed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE databases, and PsychINFO.
Thirty-six articles examining the effects of breakfast on in-class behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents were included. The effects of breakfast in different populations were considered, including undernourished or well-nourished children and adolescents from differing socio-economic status SES backgrounds. The habitual and acute effects of breakfast and the effects of school breakfast literature review on performance related pay SBPs were considered.
The evidence indicated a mainly positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior in the classroom. There was suggestive evidence that habitual breakfast frequency and quality and SBPs have a positive effect on children's academic performance with clearest effects on mathematic and arithmetic grades in undernourished children. Increased frequency of habitual breakfast was consistently positively associated with academic performance. Some evidence suggested that quality of habitual breakfast, in terms of providing a greater variety of food groups and adequate energy, was positively related to school performance.
However, these associations can be attributed, in part, to confounders such as SES and to methodological weaknesses such as the subjective nature of the observations of behavior in class. Breakfast is widely acknowledged to be the most important meal of the day. Children who habitually consume breakfast are more likely to have favorable nutrient intakes including higher intake of dietary fiber, total carbohydrate and lower total fat and cholesterol Deshmukh-Taskar et al.
Breakfast also makes a large contribution to daily micronutrient intake Balvin Frantzen et al. Consuming breakfast can also contribute to maintaining a body mass index BMI within the normal range. Two systematic reviews report that children and adolescents who habitually consume breakfast [including ready-to-eat-cereal RTEC ] have reduced likelihood of being overweight Szajewska and Ruszczynski, ; de la Hunty et al.
Breakfast consumption is also associated with other healthy lifestyle factors. Children who do not consume breakfast are more likely to be less physically active and have a lower cardio respiratory fitness level Sandercock et al. Moreover, there is evidence that breakfast positively affects learning in children in terms of behavior, cognitive, and school performance Hoyland et al.
The assumptions about the benefit of breakfast for children's learning are largely based on evidence which demonstrates acute effects of breakfast on children's cognitive performance from laboratory based experimental studies. Although the evidence is quite mixed, studies generally demonstrate that eating breakfast has a positive effect on children's cognitive performance, particularly in the domains of memory and attention Wesnes et al. Additionally, the positive effects of breakfast are more demonstrable in children who are considered undernourished, typically defined as one standard deviation below normal height or weight for age using the US National Center for Health Statistics NCHS reference Pollitt et al.
More recent evidence compares breakfast meals that differ in Glycaemic Load GLGlycaemic Index GI or both. This evidence generally suggests that a lower postprandial glycaemic response is beneficial to children's cognitive performance Benton and Jarvis, ; Ingwersen et al. Moreover, it remains unclear whether this effect is specifically due to GI or GL, or both, or to other effects unrelated literature review on performance related pay glycaemic response.
Studies rarely investigate the acute effects of breakfast on behavior in the classroom and there remains a lack of research in this area. This may be, in part, attributed to the complicated nature of the measures used to assess behavior in class and the need to develop standardized, validated, and comparable coding systems to measure behavior. Similarly, few studies examine the effects of breakfast on tangible academic outcomes such as school grades or standardized achievement tests relative to cognitive outcomes.
Whilst crude measures of academic performance may not provide the most sensitive indicator of the effects of breakfast, direct measures of academic performance are ecologically valid, have most relevance to pupils, parents, teachers, and educational policy makers and as a result may produce most impact. Cognitive, behavioral, and academic outcomes are not independent, literature review on performance related pay. Changes in cognitive performance are likely to be reflected by changes in behavior.
An increase in attention following breakfast, compared with no breakfast, literature review on performance related pay, may be reflected by an increase in on-task behavior during lessons.
Similarly, changes in cognitive performance may also impact school performance and academic outcomes in a cumulative manner. The beneficial effects of eating breakfast on cognitive performance are expected to be short term and specific to the morning on which breakfast is eaten and to selective cognitive functions.
These immediate or acute effects might translate to benefits in academic performance with habitual or regular breakfast consumption, but this has not been evaluated in most studies. Short term changes in cognitive function during lessons e. In class behavior also has important implications for school performance. This is because a prerequisite for academic learning is the ability to stay on task and sustain attention in class. Greater attention in class and engagement in learning activities referred to as on-task behavior are likely to be associated with a more productive learning literature review on performance related pay which may impact academic outcomes in the long term.
Children may be particularly vulnerable to the nutritional effects of breakfast on brain activity and associated cognitive, behavioral, and academic outcomes, literature review on performance related pay. Children have a higher brain glucose metabolism compared with adults.
Positron Emission Tomography studies indicate that cerebral metabolic rate of glucose utilization is approximately twice as high in children aged 4—10 years compared with adults.
This higher rate of glucose utilization gradually declines from age 10 and usually reaches adult levels by the age of 16—18 years Chugani, Average cerebral blood flow and cerebral oxygen utilization is 1. Moreover, the longer overnight fasting period, due to higher sleep demands during childhood and adolescence compared with adults, can deplete glycogen stores overnight Thorleifsdottir et al.
To maintain this higher metabolic rate, a continuous supply of energy derived from glucose is needed, hence breakfast consumption may be vital in providing adequate energy for the morning. Nevertheless, breakfast is the most frequently skipped meal. Despite intense public and scientific interest and a widely promoted consensus that breakfast improves concentration and alertness, Hoyland et al.
They concluded that breakfast consumption is more beneficial than skipping breakfast to cognitive outcomes, effects which were more apparent in children who are considered undernourished. They did not consider ecologically valid outcomes of behavior in-class or at school and academic performance. This article complements the Hoyland et al. Findings will be discussed dependent on outcome measure and study design with effects evaluated based on breakfast manipulation where possible.
The effects of breakfast in different populations will be considered, including children, adolescents who are undernourished or well-nourished and from differing socio-economic status SES backgrounds. The habitual and acute effects of breakfast will be considered along with the effects of school breakfast programs SBPs. The literature was searched for original articles and reviews published between — on databases: Ovid MEDLINE, Pubmed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE databases and PsychINFO.
The reference lists of existing reviews and identified articles were examined individually to supplement the electronic search. A total of 36 studies are included. Fourteen studies included behavior measures, seventeen studies included academic performance measures, and five studies examined both behavior and academic performance. Four studies included both classroom observations and rating scales Kaplan et al. Tabulation of studies investigating the effects of breakfast on behavior at school in children and adolescents.
In-class observation via one way mirror. Behavior coded: on-task, class points, questions correct, and questions attempted for set tasks. Structured recreational observation 1. Behavior coded: rule adhering, positive peer interaction, noncompliance, negative verbalization. Structured recreational observation 2. Preschool: Free play observation. Behavior coded: Fidget, activity change, movement, vocalization, literature review on performance related pay, aggression.
Teacher led in-class SBP. Fruit juice, milk, English muffins, blueberry muffins, bagels, cream cheese, eggs, toast, hot cakes. Time sampling. Behavior coded: on-task, looking around room, talking to peers, fidgeting, negatively interacting with peers, out of seat. Reaction to frustration measured by response to difficult video game. Behavior coded: literature review on performance related pay, fidgeting, physical signs of frustration, negative verbal comments.
Free Mid-morning SBP: BF during school break time at — h. Low sugar: Bread 2 slices butter 15 gand 0 g sugar drink sweetened mg aspartame or saccharine. Intervention: Free SBP Unstandardized. Average daily participation rate: Free SBP: School run. School selected food: Low sugar RTEC, low-fat milk, literature review on performance related pay, bread, spreads honey, jam, and margarinechocolate flavored milk powder, and sugar.
Intervention: SBP, Non- sugar coated RTEC, milk, bread, fruit. Considered nutritionally balanced. ADD-H, attention deficit disorder-hyperactivity; AGHE, australian guide to health eating; BMI, body mass index; BF, breakfast; CHO, carbohydrate; CT, cognitive testing; ECLS-K, literature review on performance related pay childhood longitudinal study kindergarten cohort; FSM, free school meals; GI, glycaemic index; GL, glycaemic load; Literature review on performance related pay, independent groups; Kcal, kilocalorie; NCHS, national center for health statistics; PA, physical activity; PISA, programme for international student assessment; RCT, randomized control literature review on performance related pay RDA, recommended daily allowance; RM, repeated measures; RTEC, ready to eat cereal; SBP, school breakfast program; SD, standard deviation; SES, socio-economic status.
Direct measures of classroom behavior were utilized in 11 studies. Although there are inconsistent findings, the evidence indicated a mainly positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior in the classroom in children. Seven of the eleven studies demonstrated a positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior. Two studies carried out in undernourished samples Chang et al. One study reported a negative effect of a SBP on behavior in undernourished children Cueto and Chinen, and three studies in children with behavioral problems demonstrated no effect of breakfast composition on behavior Kaplan et al.
Most studies included small samples of the order of 10—30 children which, although limited in terms of power and generalizability to the larger population, are more feasible and appropriate given the nature of the data and extensive coding methods required.
Literature review on performance related pay studies. Four intervention studies demonstrated a positive effect of SBPs on on-task behavior in undernourished and low SES children. Richter et al. Following a 6-week SBP providing approximately Kcal per day at breakfast, children in the intervention group displayed significantly less off-task and out of seat behavior and significantly more class participation Richter et al.
Concomitant teacher ratings of hyperactivity also declined significantly in the intervention group, however teachers reported no change in attention. This effect has also been demonstrated in adolescents. Two studies in small samples of adolescents aged 14—19 years showed an increase in on-task behavior in the classroom following an unstandardized teacher led SBP in vocational schools in USA Bro et al.
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